The Use Of Celebrities In Advertising Cultural Studies Essay

The Use Of Celebrities In Advertising Cultural Studies Essay In my third and last year as an Office Management student I had the assignment of writing a paper for the International Marketing course. I could choose one of the teachers topics or find one myself. I have decided to pick the topic: the differences between Western and Asian culture. This was one of the many subjects offered by the teacher. There is a lot to say about this aspect, which is why I have decided to pick two countries and to dig deeper in their culture, and their point of view regarding to advertisement. The United States and Japan will be discussed in this document and I will add several examples to give a better view on the subject. I have chosen these two countries because they are totally different from each other, what makes it the more or less easy to spot differences. The United States is for me the place to be when it comes to celebrity endorsement. Even though the two cultures are not the same, there is a link and this will be explained in the paper. I expect to receive better understanding of the two cultures but also have a look behind the scenes. I am anxious to learn whether the use of celebrity does have impact on the brand and if that impact is positive for the brand. The paper will be handled in English. I have chosen to do so, because the course and my exam were in English, and the fact that the teacher did an effort to speak in English during the course, I have found it disrespectful not to make the same effort and write this paper in English. Before starting with my main subject I would like to explain some basic things. The term celebrity is widely used for every person that comes on TV. But for companies and brands, they are more than that. Furthermore I will start with the use of celebrity, mainly in the States and tackle the marketing strategy a little bit. My paper consists of two countries, that is why Japan will come next. The differences between these two countries will be tackled by the end along with some examples. A celebrity isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Also called a celeb and it is a person that is generally recognized in a society or a culture. People can become famous in different ways: through their profession, appearances in the mass media, beauty and even crime. Through mass media, starting in the 19th and 20th century, celebrities are known in a relatively short time nationally or internationally. This can sometimes occur very fast. Like Neil Armstrong being the first man walking over/on the moon in 1969, got famous in a nick of time. Celebrities appear in public in a different way, you and me can walk on the street unnoticed without anybody carrying. For celebs it is the other way around, they are walking advertising poles. From head to toe fans analyse the clothes and brands they are wearing. Furthermore they appear in public when fulfilling their jobs, like a tennis player in front of an audience. And also while attending events, like the Academy Awards, premieres of movies, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The news, fashion magazines and even tabloids provide second source information concerning their private life. Besides doing what they do, they also endorse a brand, and act as spokespeople in advertising and on events to promote their brand. Or should I say the brand they work for. The most logical question is does this celebrity endorsement do some good to the brand? A study of Till, Stanley, Priluck in 2008 explains us that celebrity endorsement is used in marketing, because it is believed that the consumers perception of the product improves. According to McCracken (1989) a celebrity endorser is an individual who has gained public awareness and uses this awareness in commercials and advertisements on behalf of consumer products. The use of celebrities in advertising: the States When Nike started collaborating with golf icon Tiger Woods, there was a lot of scepticism about the introduction of NIKE to the golf market.  Indeed, the image of NIKE was not consistent with the image of the elite sport of golf.  It is through the use of Tiger Woods in the marketing strategy that NIKE could successfully position itself in the golf market. Nike is one of the many multinationals which makes use of celebrity endorsers in its marketing strategy. Other famous brands that call upon a celebrity to endorse are Pepsi with David Beckham. The famous advertising commercials of Nepresso where we admire a charismatic George Clooney. For companies it is very interesting to make use of celebrity endorsers since advertisements with celebrities, creates more attention than ads or commercials without celebrities.   The celebrity endorser is not necessarily an actor or a movie star, there may for example also be considered athletes, musicians, artists and politicians. Although he passed away a long time ago, in this ad we see one of the United States most popular president, John F. Kennedy for an Omega advertising. However it is not so that celebrity endorsement guarantees success.  The success of using this marketing strategy depends on the values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹that the celebrity endorser gives to the product.  It is even possible that the celebritys own image and values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹can be transferred to the product. Not only theory but also practice has shown us that the use of celebrities generates a lot of publicity. Yet these endorsements can cost a lot of money to companies. For instance Venus Williams has signed a five-year contract worth 40 million dollars, to promote and endorse Reebok. Back in the days when he was the most popular athlete in the World, Michael Jordan had signed a contract for 20 million dollars with NIKE. This proved to be very lucrative for Nike, because the AIR Jordan was for a long time very famous and every teen on the block bought the shoe. All of these celebrities gain more from endorsement contracts than from the sport they practice. That is why celebrity endorsements increase every year. In 2007, celebrities in the United States were used in 25% of all TV commercials. What is marketing communication? A company has many audiences. Consumers and other customers are only a small part of the target groups. Marketing communication can be described as getting in touch with trade and or consumers to influence their knowledge, attitudes and behaviour in a direction that is favourable for the marketing policy. The different marketing communication tools are used to influence positively the choices of the (potential) consumers. These marketing tools can be deployed at different levels. A distinction is made between the cognitive, affective and conative phase. Within the cognitive phase, the goal is to familiarize the customer with the product or the company. The affective phase is aimed at the emotions. Within this phase the customer needs to develop emotions and feelings towards the product or the company. The conative and affective phase can often be combined. In the conative stage, the customer actually makes a purchase. It is obvious that all companies aim to fulfil the last phase. A little bit of marketing strategy In this part of the paper I will dig a little bit deeper in the marketing strategy. The celebrity needs to match the brand, they are not randomly chosen by companies, just for fun. It is a whole strategy and a detailed process that comes along. I will also talk about what is important to guarantee the success of the brand and on what companies focus when choosing their celebrities. It can be said that celebrity endorsement is widely used because research indicates that the impact of celebrity endorsement is a positive investment in the marketing of a brand. However, it is not always successful. It is important for companies that they use celebrities in an efficient way in their strategy. The question is whether celebrity endorsement is the way to go when introducing new products into the market. Research indicates that about half of the marketing budget is spent on marketing when launching new products. Companies are willing to spend a lot of money, because on average 40% of product launches fail. Because so much money is spent on the marketing of new products, there is a greater chance that many companies will opt for celebrities in their commercials and ads (advertisements). This is one of the most expensive options within marketing communications. The focus is therefore on the impact of celebrity endorsement in marketing strategies of new products. With the introduction of new products, consumer uncertainty is relatively higher than the existing products. This consumer uncertainty should be removed with a good marketing policy. With high consumer uncertainty, new products should be brought more to the attention of consumers than already existing products. So that the consumers uncertainty is no longer present. It may also be noted that consumers dealing with new products still have no awareness of the product and thus no positive attitude is yet developed. This is necessary because it leads to purchase intent. Two dimensions: Attractiveness and credibility If companies want their brand to be successful throughout the help of a celebrity, there are two dimensions that they must take into account. The two dimensions of interest are namely the attractiveness and credibility of the celebrity. Several studies indicate that these two dimensions may be crucial for the success of celebrity endorsement in marketing strategy. In addition to these dimensions they also take a look at the match-up principle and the ability to use multiple celebrities in an add or advertisement. The match-up principle will be treated in this paper as this is a generally accepted principle in the choice of celebrity endorsement. Attractiveness of the celebrity The first dimension is to take into account the attractiveness of the celebrity. If an attractive celebrity is used, it is more likely that awareness is created among the target audience than when using an unattractive celebrity. This awareness is eventually to be transformed into a positive attitude of the brand. The attractiveness of the celebrity has namely a positive effect on the attitude of consumers towards the brand or product advertising .The dimension attractiveness of the celebrity is formed by the physical appearance, intelligence, athletic ability and the lifestyle of the celebrity. Based on these factors the company should decide which celebrity is suitable for his or her product or brand. Credibility of the celebrity The second dimension concerns the credibility of the celebrity. Credibility is divided into two factors: expertise and trustworthiness. Expertise of the celebrity is perceived by consumers on the basis of the allegations that the celebrity is doing in advertising. Reliability, however, is perceived as to whether the celebrity can achieve the results from the advertising or ad in his real life. Research shows that companies with good credibility factors interact within the advertising, as the celebrities generally are regarded as credible. This is crucial because the credibility of the celebrity can affect the opinions, attitudes and behaviour of the target group. The match-up principle The success of the collaboration between celebrity and the brand or product depends to a large extent on the match-up principle. The match-up basically revolves around the congruence (being suitable and appropriate) between the celebrity and the brand or product. With congruence, I mean the consistency between the characteristics of the celebrity and the product attributes. This is particularly important because the celebrity can convey its values on the product or brand without changing the product or brand image. A good match-up creates a more positive attitude of the consumers. I personally hate to see ads that use celebrities when it is obvious that the celebrity does not match the brand at all. To explain the match-up principle better, I will briefly discuss the three phases: Phase 1: In this stage, a number of values are associated with the celebrity. These values occur on the basis of the celebs appearances in the (mass) media. Consumers understand the significance and reflect it on the celebrity. Phase 2: In this phase, the values and image of the celebrity are associated with the product, through an official endorsement. Phase 3: During this phase, the values, by working with the brand or product, clearly belong to the consumer. Because the consumers associate the values of the celebrity with the values of the product they will proceed to purchase and consume the product. Multiple celebrities in an advertising or promotional One way to merge the above factors is the use of several celebrities in an advertisement or promotion. The company must then choose celebrities who complement each other within the advertising or ad. This could be, for example, the attractiveness of the celebrities chosen for an athlete and someone with an intelligent mind. To ensure credibility, a knowledgeable person and a trustworthy person can be used. Gillette, for example, is a company that applies several celebrities in its ads by using Roger Federer, Thierry Henry and Tiger Woods. An important argument for the choice of several celebrities in the marketing of a company, in these ways different audiences can be reached on the basis of a celebrity who fits in this group. When using multiple celebrities, multiple values will be linked to the product. The risks of celebrity endorsements Although there are examples that indicate that celebrity endorsement can be a good idea, there are the necessary risks. When it is assumed that all conditions of the right person for the right product are satisfied, there are two points to worry about. The greatest risk is the celebrity itself. Celebrity branding is all about transferring the value of a person on a product. The two concerns are: How long will the fame remain, and can the celebrity retain its status? The second concern is the life of celebrity, his personal integrity. If he is embroiled in a scandal, that could destroy the brand. Before Michael Jackson ended in a scandal, he had a successful deal with Pepsi. Naturally Pepsi had to stop the contract in order to prevent damage to the brand. Also O.J. Simpson was once the face of a car rental company. After the accusations of the murder of his wife, his contract was also stopped. It is very bad for a brand to be associated with an alleged murderer or paedophile. Although there are brands that hire intentionally stars with a wrong image, this is a risky step. Pepsi made again a wrong decision, by taking this risk to use hip-hop star Ludacris in its campaigns. Ludacris disrespectful attitude and his rap songs full with cursing did not match-up with the brand. After a campaign was started by a conservative politician against this endorsement, Pepsi was forced by public pressure to stop the deal with Ludacris. Although one should avoid bad publicity, it is a fact that on the international market celebrity endorsements are very suitable to create a distinctive brand. That the rules of celebrity endorsement in Japan differ from those of the West is largely due to the difference in culture, more on that later. Brands must be careful with the choices they make. When they choose a celebrity with the right personality traits, these characteristics will also be awarded to the brand and the brand will take advantage from it. If the wrong person is chosen his or her personality traits will be awarded to the brand causing the end of the brand. Very well accepted and attractive super stars like Bruce Willis and Whitney Houston failed in turning their endorsements into success. Simply assuming that a person just has to be famous to represent a brand is incorrect. A considerable number of failures prove the opposite. In the figure below you can see some of the endorsements that turned out to be a success or a failure. Lets go Asian: Japan and its celebrity endorsement In East Asian countries like Japan and South Korea, many celebrities are used in advertising. In Japan, 70 % of TV commercials use a celebrity from the sports, music, film, and fashion or entertainment business. Celebrities are used as endorsers with a statement about the quality of the product / brand or are shown only in relation to the brand /product. The idea is that the values and associations of the celebrity will be transferred to the brand and the brand by the user. Moreover, it is a form of product differentiation as other awards from competing brands is not possible or desirable. But why is the use of celebrities in Japan so much greater than in the United States and Europe? In Japan they do not only use Western and Japanese celebrities, but also talents. These are young Japanese who are on their way to the top in the worlds of fashion, music, film and entertainment. Advertising for these talents is their way to fame. Japanese advertising does not only use the reputation and associations of established celebrities, but also creates celebrities. And this goes a step further than the ads in the States. Japanese talents are normal people like you and me. They are slightly good looking, pretty much the girl or boy next door. They form a peer group with which one can easily identify. In a collectivist culture belonging to a group or identifying with that group is very important. In Japanese advertising values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹related to face and harmony lead to an indirect communication style. They feel uncomfortable with a commercial that takes that emphasise on situations or facts. A direct approach is seen as an insult to the intelligence of the consumer. The goal of advertising in the Japanese ads is to make the consumer your friend, to win his trust and respect. This goal can be achieved by entertaining the audience. Identification of the brand, the company name or product in the commercial is less important than the pleasant voices of consumers. Japanese advertisers generally use much of the time in the commercial for building trust, understanding and dependence. The result is a kind of advertising that appeals to the imagination and few to the facts. Advertising show usually no product attributes, the fun of advertising is more important. In Japanese commercials you see serenity, and nature symbols. The tone of voice is indirect, subtle, with lots of symbolism. Comparative advertising is a confrontation and is therefore seen as denigrating the competition. This is in conflict with the Asian value of harmony. The style and manner of presentation is important. A pretty picture, a story or a poem can be important parts of the advertisement. Values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹and appeals found in their advertising are respect for elders. The relationship of man with nature / the unity with nature is often the subject of advertising. Japanese are crazy about celebrities. A product is often associated with celebrities, who often represent the target. If Western models, celebrities or situat ions are used, it is only as a symbol of prestige and status: they are not intended to illustrate the western values. In Japan, a part of television and popular culture is strongly linked to the entertainment world. Songs are often especially composed for use in commercials. Differences between Western and Asian cultures There are several cultural differences that may explain the use of celebrities. While the American culture is characterized by individualism, in Japan it is more the collectivist culture. In a collectivist culture they emphasize on conformity, adaptation and obedience. We, the European and American see this as negative values, but in Japan, this is well appreciated. Celebrities fit better in a collectivist than an individualist culture. In Japan they highly look up to celebrities, especially a Western celebrity. You will also see many Western celebrities in Japanese advertising, which I will explain later on. The power distance is quite large. The statements of celebrities are followed uncritically because they are not famous for nothing. Their values rays on the brand that they support, and also on the user of that brand. Power distance and individualism-collectivism are the key explanations for the difference between East Asian and Western countries. These are two of the four Hofst ede dimensions of culture. For the other two dimensions (uncertainty avoidance and masculine-feminine) there is no large difference, even though Japan is the most masculine country in the world. In a masculine country performance and success are central, in a feminine country caring for others and quality of life is more important. Advertising is strongly influenced by culture, especially in comparisons between East Asia, Europe and North America. But even between Asian countries there are cultural differences. Some campaigns may be used in several countries, but in most cases adaptation is necessary to make an effective campaign. And in many cases adaptation is inadequate and separate campaigns must be developed for each country taking into account the national culture. View of Western culture on celebrity endorsement Celebrities and marketing go well together. There is indeed a lot of money to distribute. A study of GMI revealed that consumers, especially in the Western world are almost insensitive to the advertisements with celebrities. The celebrity endorsement, according to the agency GMI might not be as effective as many believe. In certain western markets, the strategy used did not succeed to increase the value of the product nor to persuade the consumer to buy the product The researchers note that the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement in promoting brands depends on the local culture. In the Western world they are the most indifferently towards the use of celebrities in advertising, tells GMI. In the United States 79% of the respondents indicated that a celebrity has no effect on the way they think about a product. Only 13% admitted that through celebrity endorsement the value of the brand increases. But in Japan, it is a completely different situation, said GMI. In Japan, 60% thinks that celebrities give a product more value. The study also shows that consumer find other techniques such as free samples, mouth-to-mouth are more efficient than celebrity endorsements. These techniques influence their buying behaviour slightly more. In the United States 34% of the consumers think this way. In Japan, 29% of those surveyed found advertising after the free samples the most efficient way to convert to a purchase. It took word-of-mouth advertising only 12%. Celebrity endorsement has proved most successful, implying that celebrities played an important role in their purchasing decision. Global media can create global stars. But consumers are much more sophisticated and less inclined to swallow simple, uniform marketing messages. The great indifference of consumers in the West may even be a sign that celebrity endorsement can have the opposite effect and repel consumers. American finest celebrities head to Japan Many American stars earn large sums of money by linking themselves to brands as a spokesperson by recommending certain products. Others appear nowhere in advertising because they do not want their fans to think they are selling out. However, many of these stars cannot resist the temptation to go abroad and appear in commercials and ads. Nowhere is this truer than in Japan. Even the richest and most famous people do not just say no to advertisers who pay them one to three million U.S. dollars for a couple of hours of work. And this is for a commercial that lasts 15 to 20 seconds. Mega stars like Meg Ryan, Demi Moore, Brad Pitt and Harrison Ford received millions to appear in a Japanese commercial. Meg Ryan makes recommendations for cosmetics and tea, Brad Pitt promotes tins of coffee and jeans, and Demi Moore tries to persuade the Japanese audience to purchase protein drinks. Ford received several millions to appear shirtless on ads and commercials for Kirin Beer (see below). Sometime s stars are even forced to change their image and personality to better suit the style of advertising, this is needed to fit the Japanese companies. Even the Japanese public has a different flavour than people in the West are used to have. What we, in Europe and the U.S., perceive as cheap is seen in Japan as a very normal and effective way to advertise. In a commercial for shampoo, famous actor Dennis Hopper appeared in a bathtub player with a rubber duck. There are several reasons why Japanese companies are willing to pay large amounts for these stars. Many Japanese are fascinated by the American culture and American stars. It also gives a brand an American international star status. In Japanese commercials, style and atmosphere are more important than dull product information and testimonials. Japanese are very sensitive to entertainment. Because a commercial in Japan only last 15 seconds, a western star is easily recognized and the attention of the viewer is directly captured, w hich is more worth than money. American film studios also encourage celebrities to appear in Japanese commercial lay. In this way it is easier for American films to attract the Asian population. Often the release of a new film and the appearance of the star of this film in Japanese ads fall together. While many stars go abroad for advertising, they all try to protect their image at home. There are even clauses in the contracts stating that the commercial must not be shown outside of Japan and sometimes even be discussed. With the growth of the Internet it is possible that stars like Arnold Schwarzenegger secrecy about their advertising activities are likely to remain unnoticed for the American public. Above you have just read why Japanese are less picky when it comes to match-up than for example in America. Also it seems that the credibility aspect is less of an issue in Japan. If you are a celebrity, youre in Japan, by definition, credible, match up or not. Yet it is true that these endorsements in Japan are inde ed profitable. The public in Japan is in the long term a lot more loyal than the audience in the West. If a celebrity in Japan is loved, this will remain even if the celebrity has disappeared from the spotlight. The website japander.com made an index with all of American celebrities that appear in Japanese advertising. Conclusion I can now say with proud that I have chosen the right countries to tackle this difficult but at the same time interesting topic. I am sure that many students would think that it is easy to discuss this subject, because there is a lot of information on the internet and in books. Well I can tell them that a lot of information makes it harder to write something, because it is up to the writer to eliminate unnecessary information and to write in a way that is readers friendly. My hardest task was to make sure that I removed what is not relevant and to dig deeper in the part that was relevant. Thanks to experienced authors such as Grant McCracken, Stanley and many others it became easier for me to understand what I was writing about. Their view on culture and celebrities and the way they explain it was a relief to me. This paper taught me that celebrities take a big bite in the budget of a company. Nevertheless this kind of technique in marketing is increasing and will remain because stud y does show us that it is very profitable for a brand to use a celebrity. Even though in Japan they do not strictly follow the rule of match-up, I strongly believe that a match-up is needed to make an advertisement successful. Commercials, advertisements and endorsements where the celebrity has got absolutely nothing to do with the product is for me a no go. And in that match-up, according to me the most important aspect is credibility. I am not the first one to go and buy a product once a celebrity tells me to do so, but I could slightly get more interested in the brand if I notice a strong credibility in the ad. After reading several studies, information and documents I can conclude that the use of celebrities, when respecting the two dimensions I discussed in the paper, could have a very positive impact on the brand and the reputation of the company. I know I am supposed to thank in the beginning, but I have decided to do it know. I rather want the teacher to read my paper, so she could notice for herself what I am capable of, before I thank her for the support and counseling throughout the school year. Sources BOOKS Margolis J., Garrigan P., Guerrillamarketing voor dummies, 2008, Pearson Education Benelux, Amsterdam Kotler P., Marketing: de essentie, 2009, Pearson Education Benelux, Amsterdam De Mooij M., Wereldmerken : hoe reclame omgaat met cultuurverschillen, 1998, Alphen aan den Rijn, Samson WEBSITES Joyce Huijsman, Humor doesnttraval: Frank Sinatra spaghetti, (http://joycehuijsman.wordpress.com/2011/09/28/frank-sinatra-spaghetti/) University of Texas at Austin, Celebrity Advertising in Japan and Korea Doing it the Asian Way, PDF, (http://www.perfspot.com/docs/doc.asp?id=110674) The free library, Cultural differences in television celebrity use in the United States and Lebanon, (http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Cultural+differences+in+television+celebrity+use+in+the+United+States-a0208956138) Fred van Raaij, Beroemdheden en cultuur, (http://www.swocc.nl/column/beroemdheden-en-cultuur.php) Managing21, Westerling ongevoelig voor beroemdheden?, (http://managing21.skynetblogs.be/archive/2005/01/24/westerling-ongevoelig-voor-beroemdheden.html) McCann People, Sterren in reclame verleiden niet altijd, (http://mccannpeople.wordpress.com/2009/03/31/sterren-in-reclame-verleiden-niet-altijd/) The Pop history dig; JFK, Pitchman?, (http://www.pophistorydig.com/?tag=politicians-advertising) Colombia Business School, Celebrities impact on branding, PDF, (http://worldlywriter.com/images/portfolio/Proposals/Celebrity_Branding.pdf) Martin Stam, De invloed van celebritiyendorsement in de marketingcommunicatie strategie van nieuwe producten, PDF, (http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=116167) Bart Sikkema, Who will be your next celebrity endorser?, PDF, (http://essay.utwente.nl/58467/1/scriptie_B_Sikkema.pdf) Japander, Celebrity advertising, (http://www.japander.com) IMAGES All of the images were copied from Google (www.google.com) à £Ã†â€™Ã‚ Ãƒ £Ã†â€™Ã‚ ªÃƒ £Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ £Ã†â€™Ã†â€™Ãƒ £Ã†â€™Ã¢â‚¬ ° International Marketing Celebrity endorsement Hollywood

Static And Dynamic Spectrum Allocation Computer Science Essay

Static And Dynamic Spectrum Allocation Computer Science Essay As the requirements of the wireless services keep growing, the number of variant wireless standards increases, which consequently imposes increasing stress on the fixed and limited radio spectrum. However, extensive measurements reported indicate that large part of licensed bands is in low utilization, as show in Figure 2.1. Spectrum utilization is strongly depended on place and time. Fixed spectrum allocation wastes resources. [1] Figure .1 Spectrum Utilization Nowadays applications require more bandwidth for better services. Electromagnetic spectrum, however, is a kind of limited natural resource as well as water and crude oil. Recent studies noted the poor utilization of traditional exclusive spectrum assignment. An intuitional way to improve the sparse usage is to allow an unlicensed user to access the resource during idle time. We can improve efficiency by allowing unlicensed users to exploit spectrum whenever it would not cause interference to licensed users. 2.2 Spectrum Assignment Policy: Why A fixed spectrum fraction is assigned to licensed holders on a long term basis for large geographical regions. Figure 2.2 show fixed spectrum assignment to different standards. Figure 2.2 Spectrum Assignment policy According to Federal Communications Commission (FCC), this exclusive assignment limits the usage and results in many spectrum holes, also called white space. It shows most traffic over wireless network concentrates on particular frequency, in particular region, at particular time while a significant amount of the spectrum remains unused. Throughout the whole spectra, utilization varies from 15% to 85% in frequency, time and geographic domains. Much worse is that, 90% of the time, certain portions of licensed bands are unoccupied. As users demand for better quality of services and higher data rate, efficient spectrum usage is becoming a critical issue. [2] 2.3 Static and Dynamic Spectrum Allocation: There has been numerous protocol standards on the wireless spectrum that rely on a static spectrum allocation policy under which each licensed spectrum band is statically assigned to the specific licensed service and its users. Once a spectrum band is assigned to a certain service, its allocation is not allowed to change. However, a new concept of dynamic spectrum allocation has become necessary to overcome critical limitations of the traditional static al location scheme. Recent studies have shown that the use of static spectrum allocation has degraded spectral efficiency significantly. Moreover, current standards cannot guarantee the prevention of unexpected interruptions by wireless network users. To alleviate these problems, FCC has recently suggested a new concept of cognitive radio networks (CRNs) that serves as a framework in realizing dynamic spectrum allocation. It requires the enhancement of current PHY and MAC protocols to adopt spectrum-agile features. The basic idea of s pectrum agility is to allow secondary users (SUs) or unlicensed users to access licensed spectrum bands as far as they do not produce undesirable interference with the licensed users. To achieve this goal, SUs must monitor each channelà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s usage pattern by its PUs to identify spectrum holes or opportunities to exploit. Whenever SUs find a channel that can be utilized without interfering with its PUs, it can be assigned to and will be shared by the SUs. The SUs are also responsible for monitoring returning PUs on the channel they are currently using so as to promptly vacate the channel in such a case. [3] 2.4 Unlicensed Spectrum: There are two major advantages of using unlicensed spectrum. First, there is no requirement to register for using the spectrum and its deployment is very fast and cost effective as well. Second major advantage of using unlicensed spectrum is that it is shared among users which is indeed useful for wireless systems in which devices can dynamically change its position like notebooks, cell phones, etc. It would not be practical to require the owners of a portable device to acquire a license that covers every place they may ever wish the system to operate. Fixed applications that transmit sporadically or at fluctuating rates can also make more efficient use of unlicensed spectrum; when one is not transmitting, another can. It has been shown that cellular systems could carry significantly more traffic if they shared spectrum dynamically, provided that competing firms are willing to adopt cooperative strategies that serve their common interest. Metropolitan area networks carrying bursty da ta traffic could expect even greater efficiency gains, if competing networks can be motivated to adopt such techniques. [11] 2.4.1 ISM band: The industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands were originally reserved internationally for the use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial, scientific and medical purposes other than communications. Figure 2.3 shows spectrum of ISM band. [13] Figure 2.3: ISM Band There are many factors which raises interest for using these bands such as time consuming standardization. Also, there is no requirement of registering the users using these bands, no particular restrictions on users for their usage and users can use the products anywhere at any place. There is no license fee for this band and the devices using these bands are cost effective. Many wireless communication standards are aimed to use unlicensed ISM band because it is easier to coexist with existing wireless networks than to assign a new separate empty spectrum. Currently most of spectrums for wireless communication are saturated. There are heavy interference and competition in ISM band because many wireless devices flow into this frequency area. On the contrary, spectrums of TV broadcasting, digital TV and wireless microphone tend to inactive depend on devicesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ location or time. In TV broadcasting, the spectrum is busy in TV broadcasting hours, but no one can use the spe ctrum when broadcasting signs off. Also TV spectrum is changed in compliance with localization. The 2.4 GHz ISM band has become particularly popular in last few years such as household and virtually all commercial buildings are likely to have equipment that operates in this band. Applications include wireless LANs, Bluetooth and infrared devices for short range communication and for Advanced Traveler Information and Management Systems like door openers for garage, home audio system, cordless phones, remote control, etc. 2.5 Wireless Regional Area Network (IEEE 802.22): IEEE 802.22 Working Group came in to being in November 2004 with a purpose of making a standard for wireless regional area network (WRAN) capable of using cognitive radio technology. According to its technical specifications, 802.22 WRAN systems will operate on the VHF/UHF TV bands ranging from 54 MHz to 862 MHz. The target of WRAN is to provide wireless broadband access with the average coverage radius of 33 km and can go up to 100km. The main target is to make unlicensed access to unused TV spectrum. In particular, 802.22 WRAN systems will be able to sense the spectrum, identify unused TV channels, and utilize these channels to provide broadband services for fixed wireless subscribers. While doing so, they must make sure that there is no undesirable interference with licensed users. Figure 2.4 shows the WRAN standards and application.[8] Figure 2.4: WRAN IEEE 802.22 is a standard for Wireless Regional Area Network (WRAN) which uses unused spectrum (spectrum whole) in the TV frequency spectrum on a non-interference basis. This standard is developed with the intent to give broadband internet coverage in rural areas with acceptable performance comparing with performance of DSL and cable modems. The television spectrum was selected for this application due to its propagation characteristics. Cognitive radios will reuse TV spectrum in an opportunistic way by detecting if the channel is occupied before using it. 2.6 Summary: Due to the rapid growth of wireless services, various wireless standards have been developed which are becoming a cause of major stress in fixed and limited spectrum. However fixed spectrum results in low utilization of spectrum resources as per the spectrum assignment policy. Now days, applications require more spectrum for efficient services. The fixed spectrum is not convenient for these services. Therefore, this problem can be improved efficiently by allowing unlicensed users to exploit spectrum whenever it would not cause interference to licensed users. The fixed spectrum policy that relies on a static spectrum allocation policy under which each licensed spectrum band is statically assigned to the specific licensed service and its users and its allocation is not allowed to change. In order to solve this issue a new concept of dynamic spectrum allocation also known as unlicensed spectrum policy has become necessary to overcome critical limitations of the traditional static allocation scheme. To make this concept more efficient, a new technology called cognitive radio technology has been developed. The basic idea behind this technology is to allow secondary users (SUs) to access licensed spectrum bands as far as they do not cause any harmful interference with the primary users (PUs). The unlicensed spectrum has two major advantages i.e., one is they are fast and cheap in deployment and other is unlicensed spectrum is shared. As sharing is essential for wireless networks, many wireless communication standards are aimed to use unlicensed ISM band because of complete absence of user restrictions and it is easier to coexist with existing wireless networks than to allocate new empty spectrum. Cognitive radio technology is being used in WRAN developed by IEEE 802.22 working group give broadband services in rural areas having the performance statistics comparable to DSL and cable modems by utilizing white spaces on non-interference basis.

Animal Testing :: Animal Testing

Is it right to take the life of an innocent animal? Animals have been burnt, crushed, sliced, electrocuted, tortured with drugs, poisoned with toxic chemicals, and tormented in psychological testing. They do all these test just to make money or find if a chemical is safe for humans. Is this right? Lab experimentation involving animals is inhumane. Animal testing is cruel because an animal s life is just as important as a human s life, people are exploiting animals, and animal testing doesn’t t show whether or not a product is safe for humans.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In laboratories around the world, scientists test a company s product on animals. Why do these companies test their products on animals? Many scientists would argue that it s more cost-efficient to test products on animals than on humans. Others say that they experiment on animals because animals are not as important as humans, which isn’t necessarily true. Why should humans risk the death of animals for their own benefit? What makes a human s life any more valuable than any other creature s? Every creature on earth has one life to live, a common bond that all organisms share. Who is to say that one creature should have his one life taken away from him? This is different from eating another animal for survival purposes. Scientists do not need to test their products.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  People are exploiting lab animals because of their inability to communicate with humans. The prominent English philosopher Jeremy Bentham, when commenting on animal testing, is quoted as having said, The question is not can they reason? nor can they talk? but can they suffer? The answer to his question is yes. Historical information from animal observations shows that animals do, in fact, suffer. Because of an animal s inability to communicate or reason, does that mean that humans have the right to decide their fate? Testing a company s product on animals doesn’t t mean that it will necessarily be safe for humans. For example, the drugs Oraflex, Selacryn, Zomax, Meritol, and Suprol have produced side effects, even death, in humans.

Pat Lyon At The Forge Essay -- John Neagle Artist Painter

Pat Lyon at The Forge John Neagle painted the portrait "Pat Lyon at the Forge" between 1826 and 1827. Just 50 years after the beginning of the American Revolution, this painting shows how much America had evolved. Neagle's portrait is a powerful "celebration of productive labor" (p 281) and the, "entrepreneurial and commercial energies that 'transformed' the country" (p 8). It conveys the notion of 'republican equality' (p 241) that Wood discusses and how was important it was to the leaders of the Revolution. While portraits had earlier been an 'exclusive luxury of the aristocracy' (p 354), Neagle's portrait is a break from that tradition. The painting depicts a blacksmith working in his forge with a young boy, possibly an apprentice, looking on behind him. Pay Lyon looks nothing like an aristocrat. He is a laborer, hard at work with his shirt unbuttoned and sleeves rolled up. In traditional European society, gentlemen didn?t work, only common people did. ?The liberality for which gentlemen were known connoted freedom ? freedom from material want?and freedom from having ...

Henry Cisneros :: essays research papers

Henry G. Cisneros was born on July 11, 1947 in San Antonio. He graduated from Texas A&M with a bachelors of arts and a masters of arts degree in Urban and Regional Planning. He also earned a Masters degree in Public Administration from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard and a Ph.D. in Public Administration from George Washington University.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After serving two years in the United States army in 1968, he began his career in public service by working as an administrative assistant in the San Antonio City Manager’s office, working as an assistant to the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. Beginning in 1974, he taught public policy at the University of Texas-San Antonio. In 1975, Henry was elected to the San Antonio City Council. As a council member, he emphasized the economic development and cooperation between the city’s Hispanic and White residents.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He served on the City council until 1981, when he was elected to be the Mayor of San Antonio, which is the nations 10th largest city, thus, becoming the first Hispanic mayor of a major U.S. city. During the time Cisneros was Mayor from 1981 until 1989, he rebuilt the city’s economic stability by increasing tourism and creating jobs in downtown San Antonio, recruiting convention business, attracting high tech industries, and expanding housing opportunities. In 1985, he was elected president of the National League of Cities. And, in 1989, he became chairman of his newly organized â€Å"Cisneros Asset Management Company,† which was a financial management firm for tax-exempt institutions. During this time, he received two awards: the first was in 1982, when he was selected as one of the â€Å"Ten Outstanding Young Men of America.† The second was four years later in 1986, when City and State Magazine named him Outstanding Mayor. In addition to thes e two awards, he was awarded with Vista Magazine’s Hispanic Man of the Year Honor in 1991.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For three years after leaving his job as Mayor, Henry hosted â€Å"Texans,† which is a one hour television show that is produced quarterly in Texas, and â€Å"Adelante,† which is a national daily Spanish-language radio commentary.

Living in 1900 or 1750?

Between the years 1750 and 1900, there were many important changes to agriculture, transport and education. These were generally for the better yet perhaps didn't affect everyone to the same degree. Looking at each we will see if everyone's life was changed for the better. Looking firstly at transport, it can be seen that by 1900 transport had improved greatly, instead of everyone walking and riding bikes people could go on a steam boat or train. The railways were excellent as it meant that fresh food like fish could be delivered and people could go to the seaside whereas before people who didn't live near the sea couldn't get food such as fish as there was no way for fish to travel. Also people from the country could never go to the seaside or go out on day trips as the only transport that they had was themselves or bikes , but in 1900 they could go nearly anywhere on the steam train. Most people's lives were changed for the better but it wasn't cheap to ride the train so it didn't help poor people at all. Secondly, when we look at education in 1900, it has also improved. In 1750 very few children went to school and those children who did were from very rich families. Hardly any children could read or write except those who were rich enough to go to school, whereas in 1900 nearly everyone could read and write because school was compulsory for all five to twelve year old children, both boys and girls. By 1900 there were ten universities in England, five in Scotland, one in Wales and one in Ireland. Nearly everyone's lives changed for the better, as most people could read and write so they could get decent jobs. Thirdly, while we look at agriculture we can see that it has dramatically changed. Agriculture in 1750 was based on the British Empire. The cattle and livestock were from the places in the British Empire and so were all the crops. But in 1900 the British Empire had developed rapidly so there were many new and exotic crops for Britain to eat. It changed peoples live for the better as they had a more balanced diet with lots of new fruits and all other crops. Also working conditions changed a lot during these years. In 1750 there were very little industries which were known as cottage industries as they worked in small workshops next to there homes. Whereas in 1900 there were loads of huge factories instead of small workshops. In 1750 there was hardly any pollution if any but in 1900 the air was full of pollution because of the factories. The factories in 1900 were illuminated and had safe guards on most dangerous machines. I think in some aspects it had changed for the better but in others it hadn't. It had changed for the better because it was safer and the factories produced loads of goods but there were lots of pollution. Medicine in 1750 was appalling, nobody knew anything. There were know vaccinations or anything, but in 1900 anaesthetics and antiseptics were developed so now, most patients didn't die of shock. Also Louis Pasteur had discovered that germs cause disease, this led to vaccines being developed for diphtheria and other diseases. Also sewers were installed and the water supplies were a lot better, this cut back the amount of germs around. This changed everyone's lives for better as the vaccinations were available for all. I would rather live in 1900 as the way of life is a lot better. Louis Pasteur had discovered that germs caused disease which helped develop vaccinations. I would like to live in 1900 as school is compulsory so nearly everyone can read and write.

Different causes for leg pain in children

There are many different causes and diagnoses for leg pain in children.   Developmental stage or age groups   many of these causes.   Some, however, can occur at any age.4The numerous causes of leg pain in children include Legg-Calve-Perthes disease, sports injuries, toddler’s fractures, Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis(here forward referred to in the medical jargon of SCFE), and leg length differences. 4 Related article: Identify Circumstances When Children and Young People Might Require Urgent Medical AttentionLegg-Calve-Perthes is also referred to as Legg-Perthes, here forward to be referred to as LCP.   LCP is rare, and in the United States only occurs at the ratio of 1:1200 children under the age of 15.  Ã‚   The developmental stage when LCP becomes clinically evident is between the ages of 3-12 years of age, with 7 yrs being the median age.1   However, other sources site the specified age range as between 4-8 years, which actually is a representation of the median 7 years stated earlier. 3LCP is characterized not just by developmental age, but by sex, familial, and racial factors as well.   Most LCP patients are Caucasian; in addition, most have a parent or close relative who suffered from the disease as well.1   Males are affected 4-5 times more frequently than females, but this is not a sex-linked trait.   A genetic factor is implied, but with no identifiable gene as of yet.1LCP is defined â€Å"as the idiopathic avascular osteonecrosis of the capital femoral epiphysis of the femoral head.† 1What happens in the case of LCP is this:   due to unknown etiology, the head of the femur, which contains the epiphysis and epiphysial plate, becomes necrotic.   Necrosis, meaning dead or dying tissue, in this case means that no further bone growth can occur, owing to the fact that blood supply has been cut off. 3,4Since new bone cells are produced primarily at the epiphysial plate, no bone growth in the affected leg means that, until treated, it will become shorter than the unaffected leg.  Ã‚   Soon afterward, a noticeable limp occurs due to pain and compensation for the self same pain.   Children suffering from LCP may also have pain in the groin, knee, and thigh as well. 1,2,4Necrosis in the femoral head leads to inflammation, thus being the initial cause of pain.   Activity, especially excessive hip-leg activity such as running or ju mping, will irritate the femoral head and increase the pain level.   The pain can be relieved or lessened by rest. 4X-ray films arrive at definitive diagnosis, but doctors suspecting the problem will look for clinical signs that LCP is present.   These clinical signs include difficulty rotating the knee.   If LCP has existed for some time and gone undiagnosed, other clinical signs will be indicative of its presence, such as atrophy of the buttocks, calf, or thigh muscle.1, 2Those afflicted with LCP receive a myriad of treatments. The treatment plan is most likely individualized for each child depending on the severity of pain, atrophy, and gait difficulties.The treatments used most commonly are â€Å"leg exercises, crutches, casts, bracing, and occasionally traction and surgery.   With proper treatment, the bone will grow back and the child will be able to walk normally without pain.† 4Toddler’s fractures can occur quite easily with a simple fall.   Signs to look for are irritability of the child, persistent complaints of pain, and refusal to walk. These should be relied on heavily as a parent’s diagnosis of a problem, for inflammation and redness are minor at the site above the break. 4The bone fractured in these cases is typically the tibia.   The above-mentioned symptoms warrant immediate medical attention and typically reflect that a fracture has occurred if the child is between 2-4 years old. 4Sports injuries can occur at any age of the active child.   When a sports injury has occurred, pain and limping may result due to , i.e., ankle and knee sprains, or muscle strains.   However, if limping persists after a few days of rest, or if the child refuses to bear weight on the leg,   immediate medical attention is warranted. 4Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis, with the medical acronym of SCFE, â€Å"is a common hip disorder in overweight adolescents†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚   4  The symptoms resulting from the slipped epiphysis are severe pain occurring in the hip and knee.   This, in turn, results in limited movment of the affected hip, and limping.   Diagnosis is by x-ray. 4Treatments would include pain relief as prescribed by the doctor; a usual program of alternating Tylenol and Ibuprophen might be prescribed.   Included in the treatment plan would be immediate counseling of the family and adolescent on proper diet, and allowable exercise considering the ailment.Sickle Cell Disease(SCD) is the severest form of the sickling syndromes; this is because it is homozygous recessive.   In other words, the child carries both recessive alleles on the chromosome.   In all sickling syndromes, the problem results from the genetic error of the red blood cell design.   In the United States, it is estimated that 1:12 Blacks   are carriers of the sickle cell trait, and 1:65 develop sickle cell anemia.   Though predominantly affecting Blacks in the U.S., other   races are susceptible as well:   peo ple from the Mediterranean, India, Asia-Minor, and the Caribbean.Rather than the normal shape of RBC’s, the genetic disorder causes sickle-shaped cells that do not allow oxygen to attach to the protein heme in an effective manner.   This reduces oxygen available in the blood.5The prognosis for children with SCD is poor, in that death occurs during the middle-aged years.   â€Å"Anemia usually is severe, chronic and hemolytic.† 5  Ã‚  Ã‚   Both acute and chronic exacerbations will occur, the frequency of which is most likely tied to emotional and environmental factors.   These environmental factors include emotional upset, situations that lead to dehydration, change of oxygen tension in the body(by infection, which is common, i.e.,), and weather changes – in particular cold.   Environmental factors that can be eliminated altogether to help reduce the recurrence or severity of attacks are alcohol and tobacco. 5The worst-case scenario, which does occur wi th these patients, is vaso-occlusive episodes. In these episodes, circulation is greatly hampered, resulting in pain concentrated in areas of localized necrotizing bone marrow, i.e., the sternum, ribs, long-bones, spine and pelvis.   The occlusion is from clumped, sickle cells that cannot flow out of the area. 5No specific therapy exists for SCD.   However, depending on the type of crisis, be it the need to lower Hb S during an infarction, too little oxygen and RBC’s, severe dehydration, etc., transfusion is a frequent treatment – usually packed red blood cells are the blood component used. 5â€Å"Transial Synovitis of the hip is a cause of hip pain in children.† 7   Ã‚  The adjective ‘transial’ is used because the condition does not last long – approximately a week.   Symptoms of pain occur in one hip, but pain may also be felt in the medial aspect of the knee and thigh.   The pain occurs in the tissue surrounding the hip, not in t he bones themselves.   7The pain increases with different rates in children; some are in the doctor’s office within 1-3 days of onset, some a few days later as the pain peaks.   The child may have a limp, or have trouble standing and walking by the time he’s seen.   Once again, boys are affected more than girls.   The age range affected is from 3-10 years of age. 7Treatment is bed rest for 3-4 days and use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatories for pain relief, reduction of inflammation and swelling.   The child returns to normal after this time period.   If a temperature is present, the doctor may order x-rays and blood tests to rule out other hip conditions.7Leg Length Differences.   The name is self-explanatory.   â€Å"Some children are either born with or develop a difference in the length of the bones in their legs.† 4     Ã‚  No etiology is given for either scenario, and both situations receive the same set of treatment choices.   Diff erences in leg length between 0-2cm require no treatment most of the time, but shoe lifts may be used.   If the length difference is between 5-15cm, surgery to lengthen one leg or to shorten the other is necessary, unless a prosthesis is chosen for the shorter limb. 4In summary, there are many conditions and diseases that add to the suffering and cause of leg pain in children.   The hip disorders and diseases discussed that are accompanied by knee and/or thigh pain, can be misdiagnosed as injuries originating in the knee, other than compensational pain as the symptoms really are.   Though many affect children at different stages of life and bear different severity of diagnosis and prognosis, all are significant.BIBLIOGRAPHYwww.mrsci.com/Orthopedics/Perthes_disease.php, 10/26-27/06www.hopkinsmedicine.org/orthopedicsurgery/perthes.html, 10/26-27/06Hall & Brody:   Therapeutic Exercise:   Moving Toward Function, 2nd Editionc 2005, Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins.www.keepkids healthy.com/symptoms/legpainlimping.html, 10/26-27/06Phipps, Cassmeyer, Sands, Lehman, Medical-Surgical Nursing,Concepts and Clinical Practice, c 2005, Mosby.Shiel, Jr., William C., MD,www.medicinenet.com/ankylosing_spondylitis/article.html, 10/26-27/06www.familydoctor.org/181.xml, 10/26/06DIFFERENT CAUSES FOR LEG PAIN  IN CHILDREN2006